Different stakeholders Essay

D1: Evaluate the influence different stakeholders exert in the organisation. Introduction Each stakeholder is important to the business, however, some are more important than others. I have chosen the top three that I think are the most important and in this word document, I will evaluate how these stakeholders influence the NHS and McDonalds. McDonalds Owners The owners are very important in McDonalds, because they’re the people that invest in the business and make sure that it runs smoothly to be able to give a good service and provide the customers with high quality food. They have to make sure that the each of the fast food restaurants are kept clean and designed well, to attract the customers and make them enjoy their time while having their food. This brings more costs with it; therefore the owners have to make sure that they have enough money when investing more money into the restaurants. They also have to make sure that McDonalds is fully equipped to be able to prepare the food that’s on the menu. When hiring new members of staff, they have to follow the procedures to make sure that they do it correctly. The people that they hire need to be suitable for the job and meet all of McDonald’s requirements and if failed to do so, it could have a big impact on the business and its overall success. Owners also need to make sure that all of the rules and regulations are followed so they don’t get into trouble for going against the law. If any of their employees don’t follow these rules, they are the ones to deal with it. The owners are in control of finance of the business and it’s budgeting. They need to make sure that the money is divided equally and controlled as it’s very easy to fall into debt but harder to get out of it. However, the owners don’t deal with everything themselves as their restaurants are all over the world; therefore they have their trusted people that deal with most of the issues that they don’t have time to deal with. For example, these people working for the owners have a high position within the business and they’re in charge of staff and the way separate restaurants are run. They have to motivate the stuff so they can be happier and enjoy their job more to provide a better quality service to the customers and this way improve the reputation of the business and help to make more profit as happy customers  are most likely to return to McDonalds repeatedly. Employees Employees working in McDonalds have to be well-trained to be able to prepare all of the food and serve the customers in the way that meets their expectations. Without staff, the restaurants wouldn’t be running because there would be no one to serve the customers and it’s not like McDonalds is a small family-run business so the owners could just do all the work themselves. There are many different departments within McDonalds and people are trained for different job roles but they still work together as a team to create overall business success. Employees also have to meet all of the customers’ expectations, whether that’s when preparing their food or serving them. They have to be friendly, patient and caring. The customers’ satisfaction should be the most important to them. However, they want to work in good working conditions and they want to know that they have a secure job, so the employers must make sure that they provide them with these. They might also expect a decent pay considering their job role consists of being on their feet during their shift and keeps them very busy. They can’t expect the pay to be too high at the same time because working in McDonalds doesn’t require any previous experience as full training is given and there’s no particular education expectations that the employees need in order to work in this fast food restaurant. Customers Customers in McDonalds are important, that’s why they’re in the top 3 in terms of how important they are to the business. They are the ones eating the food that McDonalds provide and in return they want to receive a high quality meal for a good price and they want to receive a good service when having their meal. If the business didn’t meet all of these expectations and they would give the customer sub-standard food, the customers might decide they don’t want to visit the restaurant again and it will affect the long-term profit that the business makes, it will also affect the reputation of McDonalds, therefore other customers might behave differently and have a negative opinion on it. The customers might chose to use other fast food restaurants such as Subway, KFC or Burger King who are a competition to McDonalds and it will affect its market share. Customers have an influence on the food that’s served in McDonalds, the quality of it and its price. To be able to charge low prices, the fast food restaurant might have to accept a low profit margin on their products. To be able to prepare high quality food and serve them in the right way, they might need to spend a lot of time and money to train the staff. It’s essential to meet the needs of customers in McDonalds if they want to carry on being a successful business and achieve their aims. NHS Government The government finances NHS, therefore without it, the service couldn’t be provided for free and some people could be affected by that as they might not have the money to pay for expensive health services and their health would be at risk. They are the ones to make sure that everything runs smoothly so a high quality service can be provided. They have to make sure that the NHS has all of the equipment needed to provide the service, that enough staff are hired to carry out these services and that they have the right qualifications and experience. The government needs to make sure that people working for the NHS are not over-working because they have a hard job as it is and they’re taking care of patients, so if they don’t have enough rest, they won’t be able to give a high standard service . Employees The employees in NHS are nurses, doctors and admin staff, all working in hospitals. These people have to have previous experience and they also have to have the right qualifications because they’re dealing with serious matters which is other people’s health, therefore they will want to work in a good environment, have a secure job and receive a good pay. These requirements will have an impact on the business because to be able to provide a good working environment, they will have to invest more money into it for example giving staff longer breaks or making sure that the working conditions are good. Also, high rates of pay will affect the finance of the business; however, if the staff doesn’t receive enough money for their job role, they might not be motivated to work. This will affect the way the business operates and gives out a service because it wouldn’t be a high standard. This would change the public opinion on NHS and then they would expect more from the government if their needs weren’t satisfied and  therefore, the government would have to invest more money in the NHS. The employees have a big impact on the service that is given out to the general public. Patients Patients are very important in the NHS because the NHS basically exists for people. If no one used their services, there would be no point of this existing because it’s a free health service provided to people that simply can’t afford it. If no one used the NHS services, the government would just pointlessly spend money on something that isn’t needed. However, when the patients decide to use the NHS, they have certain expectations that need to be met. They want to be treated equally and receive the health service they really need, whether it’s something simple or more serious. They are not expecting to pay for any help that’s given to them, they want the doctors and nurses to be friendly and helpful and they also expect the overall place to be in a good condition and atmosphere to be friendly and comfortable. The patients can give feedback after they have received a service, whether it’s to the company itself or whether it’s to family and friends who can then enjoy the use of the service too and make it more popular. The patients are also the ones who influence the products and services that the NHS provides because these need to be suitable for the patients themselves and meet their needs and requirements. Summary There are many different people working in different areas and departments of McDonalds and each of these groups have an effect on the company and how well it’s doing. Some of these stakeholders work together to achieve a mutual aim, whereas others work individually to achieve their own. There are also groups of stakeholders who don’t agree with each other and there are some opposing interests between them, therefore the business needs to be ready to resolve these differences. Overall, I think the owners, employees and customers are the most important stakeholders for McDonalds, because without them, the business simply wouldn’t be running or they wouldn’t be able to achieve success. If the owners of McDonalds didn’t invest enough money into the business to make it appealing to its customers and they didn’t hire the right employees who would meet the customers needs and expectations, the business wouldn’t be successful overall and they wouldn’t  be able to expand like it has. The most important stakeholder for the NHS is the government because they are the ones who are in charge of the NHS and they fund them. Without the money that the government invests in the NHS, they wouldn’t be able to provide patients with free health service and therefore the patients might not be able to afford healthcare. The employees such as doctors and nurses are very important because the NHS needs experienced people to work for them and to provide the service to their patients but also meet their business aims.

Example of a Synopsis

We decided that the best way to impact our community was to change the way people think thus changing their reality. The Powerpuff girls project was situated at the Amani Na Wema Children Home. Our chosen topic was to give the same leadership seminar we received from Mrs Ogalla in a manner in which they could understand. We taught kids between the ages of 10 and 15 years of age. This was so as to equip them with the tools they required to brighten their future. In our first session we taught them about goal setting, planning and teamwork. In our second session we taught them about Comfort zones, Excuses and doing a vision board In our third session we taught them about Accepting feedback and Doing their best. In our last session we asked them to give us back what we taught them in a creative way. We then threw a party as a farewell gift to them. We experienced several challenges one of them being that we were unable to teach them during the holidays. Furthermore it was difficult to find a convenient time for all of us to meet and discuss our content for each session. Despite all the challenges we managed to pull through as a team and get the work done. Through these challenges we have learnt invaluable lessons by putting into practice our leadership skills. In conclusion the project has opened our eyes to the need to change and develop our society by developing their ‘Software’ that is changing how they think.

Fredrick Expression of Allegiance to the Declaration of Independence Essay

Fredrick Expression of Allegiance to the Declaration of Independence - Essay Example He had been invited to speak concerning what the Fourth of July signifies for America's black community, and although the initial part of the speech congratulates what the founding fathers accomplished for America, in general, the speech slowly graduates into a condemnation of the American society and the slavery. This is because he related to slavery for he was once a slave before he escaped. His uncertainty towards the American public and the independence depicts his allegiance to the idea, although he thinks it bleak for the black community. Douglass begins his speech by addressing the president and the fellow citizens in attendance. It is noteworthy that Douglass counts himself a citizen, at par with the rest of the spectators in the audience. All through this oration, including his life, Douglass exponents equal justice and rights, as well as nationality, for blacks. He begins his speech by modestly excusing for being panicky in front of the audience and makes an acknowledgment that the journey to freedom was a long one considering his trifle along the way. He addresses the listeners for the gathering, which was the Fourth of July, nevertheless prompts them on the idea of the nation young, and is capable to transform in the coming years. By this, he implies the country is still on the road to the establishment of a great country. He actually believes the independence was gained, however not for the black population that is still in dire need of freedom. Douglass conceives the independence was a good advance by the founding fathers; nevertheless, they still have to extend the freedom clause in actions and treatment of the black population.

CRITICAL MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

CRITICAL MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES - Essay Example It is also important to have human skills in order to incorporate the views of other people and manage them well; this will also ensure that the people work towards a common goal within the organization (Alvesson et al., 2009, p. 200). Therefore, critical management is determined to harmonize the workplace, through ensuring that the employees and facilities are managed well and working conditions improved. In order to ascertain this, managers need to rely on management theory and practice in order to deal with the complexities and ambiguity of organizations. These management theories and practices deal with construction of models based on observations, to try and manage business activities (Carr, 2000, pp. 210). In addition, the practices of management also deals real life experiences of the manager within an organization. This paper therefore seeks to critically evaluate the impact of ambiguity, complexity, and uncertainty on how the organization is managed. Additionally, the paper will demonstrate a critical understanding of management practice and theory, ability to identify and evaluate vital assumptions in the ideology of management, and analyze and evaluate organization and management theory and appraise the application of management theory in organizational contemporary contexts. Management is a process of working with and through people. Organizations need effective management in order to maximize their production under the prevailing conditions of scarce resources. Managers need to shift their focus to the contemporary issues of organizations such as the ambiguity, uncertainty, and complexity of organizations. It is also important for upcoming managers to exhibit a critical understanding of management practice and theory. In addition, ability to identify and evaluate the major assumptions of management ideology and evaluating the theories of organization and management in its application to the wide range of contemporary contexts; will enable managers maximize the potential of their organizations in working under the uncertainties and complexities of organizations.. It is in this regard that this paper is written. Management and organization theory and practice concept Several theories of management and organization can be used in ascertaining effective management of organizations. These will help in solving the recurring issues, challenges and problems within the organization. According to Aven & Renn (2010, p. 190 100) among the effective management theories for effective management of organization’s uncertainties, ambiguity and complexity is the scientific management theory that was founded by Taylor; this theory states that management needs to ensure proper planning of organizational activities in order to achieve optimum productivity and efficiency. This productivity and efficiency can be realized when the management relates well with the employees who form major part of the organization. The theory also asserts that employees be trained using scientific methods in order to avoid conflict with the management. The graduate manager may also employ the bureaucratic approach as described by Max Weber in managing the mentioned uncertainty, ambiguity, and complexity of the organization. According to Alvesson et al., (2009) the bureaucratic approach by Max Weber, is vital in centralizing the structure of management. According to the theory, democracy should spearhead the practices within the organ

International economics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

International economics - Assignment Example 4. A debtor nation is that which has a negative balance of trade owing to numerous debts owed to international financial institutions while a creditor nation is that which has a positive balance of trade. Entries like exports, loan receipts and investments constitute surplus, hence indicate creditor status while those entries like amount expenditure, are considered deficits and indicate a debtor status (Becker 123). 5. Exchange rate refers to the market rates at which a given currency trades in relation to others. Depreciation refers to the decrease in a country’s exchange rate while appreciation is the decrease in a country’s exchange rate. Arbitrage is the systematic purchase of a good or service from one location at a very low price, and selling it in another location at an exceedingly high price. In exchange markets, arbitrage is used by traders by exploiting weaknesses in computerized systems to make quick profits (Becker 123). 6. Purchasing parity refers to a system normally used in determining various currency values in relation to others. Purchasing power parity would hold when the price of commodities were equal in all countries (Becker 223). A free market economy where goods enter and leave borders may make purchasing parity a good estimate of a country’s currency. 7. The following shows how exchange rate growth is closely connected to differences in money growth, and real output growth across countries whereby the growth of real output leads to a money growth, which subsequently leads to increase in the exchange rate 1. The supply curve is upward sloping since the increase in the supply of Canadian dollars leads to an increase in the value of Icelandic Krona. This may arise due to increased inflation in Canada and poor monetary economic policies. 9. The above graph shows that an increase in the Canadian dollar value leads to a corresponding decrease in the value of the Icelandic Krona. This may take place due to an increased demand

Epidemiology study case and powerpoint Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Epidemiology and powerpoint - Case Study Example This prompted the epidemiology team to be called to the scene. After the health department had conducted investigation, the following results were revealed in the list of food that was eaten by the students during the party, the total student who ate a particular food and the illness tabulation. Following the complaints of vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pains filed by the students, the department of epidemiological health decided to send health team for fieldwork to determine the number of cases. in addition, the health team was also to collect samples to verify the diagnosis of the outbreak. In addition, enough information was collected on the types of food the students ate at the party using questionnaires that were filled by the students. Through the fieldwork conducted by the health team epidemiologist, they concluded that there was an outbreak of a disease in the AHS 360 class after the students who attended the party showed similar symptoms hours after the party. After verifying the disease outbreak in the class, the health team further decided to verify the existence of the epidemic using the cases observed and the estimated number of cases. The decision to launch the investigation was influenced by the severity of the illness, potential ability to spread and the control measures available. The health team collected samples for clinical findings and laboratory examination to verify the exact disease outbreak following symptoms that detail foodborne disease. From the clinical features presented by the students, the results of the questionnaires answered, epidemiological risk rate and the laboratory examination, it was concluded that Bacillus Cereus was the actual causative agent to the disease outbreak in AHS 360 class. It was confirmed that those students who attended the party and ate food were at a risk of developing symptoms of the disease compared to those who did not attend the party. In addition, those who attended the party and did not eat any

The Waterboy Reaction Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Waterboy Reaction Paper - Essay Example Tim Herlihy and Adam Sandler wrote the film; it acts as a motivator to surpass the general parameter of mundane perceptions of possible and impossible. It retells the story of immense possibilities imbibed within an individual who just needs certain extra efforts and a little bit of courage to surface out. Thesis Statement This essay intends to explore the reaction that evolves in the mind of a man after watching this film and the nature and amount of motivation the film exercises on the mind of the audience watching it. Water Boy: A Reflection Characters and situations appearing on the silver screen are always very fascinating. Hardly any hero of a film or a novel confronts defeat. However, in real life the situations are always very different. At a pragmatic plane, therefore it is very tough always to relate to the characters of the reel life. Bobby, the protagonist of the film, â€Å"The Water Boy† at the outset of the film is projected as a character very clumsy and unacce ptable. He is shown undergoing the immense teasing of his fellow boys who are regular players in the football team. He is over protected by his mother who makes him more effeminate and weak. However, nobody ever tries to peep into the nobility of the boy, who chooses to supply water to his classmates playing for the football team after hearing that his father died of dehydration in the Sahara desert while serving in the Peace Corps. He undergoes all the humiliation to provide water to the boys whom he feels need it and in his own little way tries to pacify his mind by quenching the thirst of others. From this act of the boy, his mental convictions are indicated. He is a very determined person and he never gave up whatever he liked although he faced a lot of humiliation from his classmates and often chiding from the head coach, Red Beaulieu played by Jerry Red accusing him of disrupting the practice unnecessary. These situations in the film are conceived on a pragmatic line of action and thought process and motivate a human mind to a great extent. A dejected and a deprived person best comprehends the pang and the pain of another deprived and dejected person. As it is said, one is not able to feel the pang of a sore toe unless he puts the feet inside the shoe. The character of Coach Klein performed by Henry Winkler appears as the catalyst to the process of metamorphosis that takes place in Bobby’s life. He understands his ability and approaches Coach Klein, who mentors him to become one of the most aggressive linebackers attacking the opponent players continuously with ferocity almost like a superhuman. The deprivation and humiliation of long drawn years, which could have acted as a prominent flow of negative energy in Bobby, actually was manipulated by Bobby as his aggression, which he used to develop his attacking skill in the football ground. At the same time, coach Klein was able to give a good reply to the coach Beaulieu by training and transforming a mere water boy of his team to one of the most valued and attacking players of the opposite team. The film â€Å"Water Boy† is very motivating because it shows the perfect balance of a professional and personal life, which is a very important factor of the contemporary world. Bobby achieves a great development in his career as a player. He transforms himself completely. However, this change does not bring any kind of pride of self-glory in him. He knows how to balance his personal and professional life. Bobby follows the exact

Grand Canyon University's History and Christian Heritage Essay

Grand Canyon University's History and Christian Heritage - Essay Example With regard to GCU's mission, the method of its enforcement is compatible with the university's Christian heritage. As claimed by Dr. Ray, Christian education is an "education with a spirit and soul". He further said that the foundation of Christian training were moral, mental, physical, social and spiritual - all of which are based upon the holy scripture, the bible. To become global citizens, effective communicators, critical thinkers and responsible leaders are consistent with Christian education. The university's four pillars, namely, academic advancement, Christian camaraderie, extracurricular excellence and wellness and well-being are all consistent with its history and Christian heritage. To note, academic excellence is one of the reasons why the Grand Canyon College was given accreditation in 1968. Athletic competition was the other reason. The school had long been active in sports and other extracurricular activities. These inclinations are all in line with Christian educati on as envisioned by Dr. Ray. ... 28). He further said that the foundation of Christian training were moral, mental, physical, social and spiritual -- all of which are based upon the holy scripture, the bible (Ray, as cited in Helfers, p. 28). To become global citizens, effective communicators, critical thinkers and responsible leaders are consistent with Christian education. The university's four pillars, namely, academic advancement, Christian camaraderie, extracurricular excellence and wellness and well-being are all consistent with its history and Christian heritage (â€Å"Four,† n.d.). To note, academic excellence is one of the reasons why the Grand Canyon College was given accreditation in 1968. Athletic competition was the other reason. The school had long been active in sports and other extracurricular activities. These inclinations are all in line with Christian education as envisioned by Dr. Ray. Diversity is one aspect that the university is trying to nourish. The founders of the university wanted t he school's name to be inclusive and all-encompassing (Helfers, 2000). Thus, the term Baptist was not included. According to Helfers (2000, p. 27), they aimed to welcome "students of all faiths or no faith." Presently, it has been accepting students of different religious backgrounds. Also, it has been employing faculties coming from over twenty denominations (â€Å"GCU,† n.d.). All these facts reflect the university's history and Christian faith. Personally, the university's statements correspond to my own set of values and traditions. I have been a believer of Christian faith since I was a child. The Baptist and Catholic Church both believe in Jesus Christ. Thus, I found it easy to understand the school's history and Christian heritage. Basically, what differs

Grievance Process Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Grievance Process - Assignment Example The research objective correlates with the desire and aim of management to develop productive and satisfactory procedures for improving service quality. The goal system of an organisation is based on the aspirations that drive the current practices, and the complex hierarchy of interconnected goals is defined by the desires and aims supported by other aims (Eden and Ackerman 1998). The aim of this research is to critically evaluate the grievance and disciplinary process to ensure that it is a viable and strategic management resource for understanding employee, management and organisation relationships (Davenport 1995). The outline of objectives is based on the following literature review. The literature review was used to first develop a framework for consistent theories in strategic management. Therefore, the objectives are approached from a human interaction standpoint and not a political, legal or implied quantitative position. The rational planning school defines the objective in advance by determining the current strategic position, and then using a prescriptive approach that exemplifies the strategic analysis, development and implementation (Lynch 2000). This is a strong foundation of the research proposal as the perspective approach is a systematic method that follows in sequence (Lynch 2000). This is used as a cyclic approach to a series of rationales instead of being sequential, and is most often seen in organisations where environment and strategy are constantly analysed (Lynch 2000). To find information regarding accounting management practices, qualitative data will be collected. This allows for an evaluation of the results to be made on the empirical views and new information to be gathered in a timely and inexpensive manner where other methods are based on information that is already in existence. Examining the components of the grievance process will collect qualitative data. Collection of information will be from theoretical management review and the relationship to Mersey Care NHS Trust grievance and disciplinary procedure. Outline of Key Concerns In the socially motivated health care industry, strategic management must look beyond functionality and towards a support system for innovation, developing core competencies and knowledge based communication. Breaking from the traditional mindset to incorporate a strategic plan that is focused on encouraging an employees knowledge-based value often includes training, reward systems, and encouragement (Harrison and Enz p45 2005). The grievance policy must deal with the process of the grievance and response as well as the people

Process Improvement (Logistics) Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Process Improvement (Logistics) - Research Paper Example All organizations irrespective of their industry segment work towards becoming the world’s supply chain management (SCM) leaders. This status is attained through the development of top line income growth via ameliorated client satisfaction, increased supply chain speed, and minimized overheads and cycle times. The role played by logistics excellence and transportation in an attempt to develop a state-of-the-art supply chain has become noticeable nowadays.Transportation expenses take up a significant amount of the supply chain and can be eliminated via Transportation Management Solutions (TMS).TMS can attain these savings by process improvement. Many organizations are capable of redeploying or reducing existing transportation overheads and employees significantly by automating main logistics and transportation processes through advanced TMS. Partially, this is achieved by automating manual jobs such as carrier selection, tendering and acceptance, and shipment planning resulting in improved productivity benefits for transportation faculty.A large number of firms can minimize operating costs by consolidating transportation routines at a network stage as opposed to having transportation staff at every ship level. Organizations using these "load control centers" network save a significant amount of overall freight bills and overhead.Inventory management includes the process of effectively ensuring a continuous movement of stocks out of and into the current inventory.

Master Budgeting with Supporting Schedule Essay Example for Free

Master Budgeting with Supporting Schedule Essay Cravat Sales Company, a nationwide distributor of a designer’s silk ties with an exclusive franchise on the distribution of the ties, and sales have grown rapidly over the last few years. Your have been given responsibility for all planning and budgeting. Your assignment is to prepare a master budget for the next 3 months, starting April 1st. You are anxious to make a favorable impression on the president and have assembled the information below. The company desires a minimum ending cash balance each month of ,000. The ties are sold to retailers for $8 each. Recent and forecasted sales in units are as follows: The large buildup in sales before and during June is due to Father’s Day. Ending inventories are supposed to equal 90% of the next month’s sales in units. The ties cost the company $5 each. Purchases are paid for as follows: 50% in the month of purchase, and the remaining 50% in the following month All sales are on credit, with no discount, and payable within 15 days, however, only 25% of a month’s sales are collected by month-end. An additional 50% is collected in the following month, and the remaining 25% is collected in the second month following sale. Bad debts have been negligible. The company’s monthly selling and administrative expenses are given below: Variable monthly expenses: Sales commissions (per unit)$1.00 Fixed monthly expenses: Wages and salaries$22,000.00 Utilities$14,000.00 Insurance$1,200.00 Depreciation$1,500.00 Miscellaneous$3,000.00 All selling and administrative expenses are paid during the month, in cash, with the exception of depreciation and insurance expired. Land will be purchased during May for $25,000 cash. The company declares dividends of $12,000 each quarter, payable in the first month of the following quarter. The company’s balance sheet at March 31 is given below: The company has an agreement with a bank that allows it to borrow in increments of $1,000 at the beginning of each month, up to a total loan balance of $40,000. The interest rate on these loans is 1% per month, and for simplicity, we will assume that interest is not compounded. At the end of the quarter, the company would pay the bank all of the accumulated interest on the loan and as much of the loan as possible (in increments of $1,000), while still retaining at least $10,000 in cash. Assignments: Prepare a master budget for the three-month period ending June 30, including: * sales budget by month and in total * schedule of expected cash collections from sales, by month and in total * merchandise purchases budget in units and in dollars, by month and in total * schedule of expected cash disbursements for merchandise purchases, by month and in total * cash budget by month and in total * budgeted income statement for the three-month period ending June 30, with the contribution approach * budgeted balance sheet as of June 30 Solutions: Based on the sale forecast from April to July and the expected cash collection portions in each month (25% 50% 25%) , a sales budget ,a schedule of expected cash collections from sales, a merchandise purchases budget and schedule of expected cash disbursements were calculated and displayed in Table 1. Table 1 – Cravat Sales Company Expected sales, cash collections, and cash disbursements for merchandise purchases Unit: USD The Cravat Sales Company was expected to spend $195,750, $256,250, and $251,250 in cash for purchasing of merchandises in April, May, and June respectively. Totally, it would spend $703,250 within the 2nd quarter. In the first attempt to forecast the cash funding, we found that the company could not borrow less than $40,000 per month as agreed with the bank while maintaining the minimum ending cash balance of $10,000 at the same time. If comply only the borrowing limit, it would keep marginal cash of $2,250 in hands by end of April and suffer severe cash shortage of $37,000 by the end of May.

Differences Between Community And Zero Tolerance Policing Criminology Essay

Differences Between Community And Zero Tolerance Policing Criminology Essay Community policing is an oxymoron, for if the police could serve the whole community there would be little point in having a police force at all fn 1. However for the purposes of this essay community policing will have the meaning which is ascribed to it by the Home Office. It is seen as a key and permanent element of reforms to make the police service more citizen focused. The aim is to build a more responsive, locally accountable and citizen-focused police service through a programme to transform policing at a local level to meet the needs of communities. dddddd  [2]   The notion of zero tolerance policing was inspired by the apparent success of the approach taken in NY, and a variation of it-confident policing-pursued by DCI Mallon in Hartlepool as well as others within the UK. The notion of zero tolerance policing is based upon the broken window theory  [3]  and the conviction that the best way to tackle serious crime is to tackle disorder in which policies such as the community safety order, parental responsibility order, composite offence and final warning all have a role to play. It is arguable that this policy adopts a social exclusion rather than inclusion policy approach towards community safety. The result may be that healthy urban futures are established but not necessarily all inhabitants will benefit. Crime, disorder, anti-social behaviour and nuisance may all be particularly unpleasant but it is not clear if placing such a strong emphasis upon criminalisation and enforcement is the best way of tackling the problems contributing to and created by those behaviours. It leaves very little space for more constructive actions and even where it is possible to do so, they take place on terms which strengthen the criminalisation of the discourse of social policy so that the measures end up being more about containment and control within the community.  [4]   In 1996 the London Metropolitan Police carried out a zero tolerance initiative in partnership with the Transport Police, City of London Police and local authority councils. This initiative involved active confrontational measures to deal with homeless beggars, drug dealers, prostitutes and pimps who were congregating at the St Pancreas Railway Station. The result of the action was the temporary displacement of the undesirables to adjoining neighbourhoods until the control measures were withdrawn. The benefits included over 400 arrests of drug dealers and a raising of the quality of life for people in the area (Leigh et al 1998; 73) A recent Home Office Study of policing styles noted that Cleveland Police responsible for Middlesborough remain convinced that zero tolerance is compatible with community policing in a problem orientated policing form. Cleveland police viewed it as a short term prelude to the implementation of longer term measures in high crime areas where fear of, and intimidation by a minority of residents is having a detrimental effect (Leigh et al 1998, 26 and Romeanes 1998). The statutory enforcement powers for zero tolerance are contained within the Crime and Disorder Act with its emphasis on taking back control over unruly neighbourhoods and so it is not unreasonable or unlikely that the Home Office would give the initiative a qualified endorsement although it chooses to term it order maintenance (Jordan 1998 72). Zero tolerance style of policing is popular with a majority of the public who se the police as being tough on crime. In July 2003 an ICM Poll for the think-tank Reform questioned public support for zero tolerance comprising a highly visible policing on the streets bearing down heavily on anti social behaviour and vandalism. 83% thought that this would be a good idea, with over 50% thinking it would be a very good idea. Does Safer Neighbourhood Policing Help p 62-63 Zero Tolerance does have the negative repercussions of souring police community relations and can antagonise racial tensions in neighbourhoods. This is in conflict with the philosophy and practice of community policing which depends upon strong support from the public and discretion from police officers, proactive policing, problem solving and an intimate knowledge of the neighbourhood in which the police are operating, acquiring intelligence and building trust. Officers viewed discretion as an important part of community policing. A firearms officer was outside a school monitoring traffic and flagged down a middle aged man who was not wearing a seat belt. He managed to resist the temptation to alienate the police service further by scoring 5 easy points and after some advice, he let the man proceed on his way. A few months later the firearms officer found himself in an unoccupied house where a gun had been found in very suspicious circumstances. The same man as in the seat belt incident approached him and provided invaluable information which saved many hours of police investigation. The officer maintained that the man assisted him because he had dealt with him leniently in the seat belt incident and the officer wondered if the man would have assisted had he not used his discretion in the earlier incident? The officer said that police should be left to use their common sense on the streets.  [5]  Cited in The Public and Police by Harrie t Sergeant page 52 Is the answer for the two concepts to sit side by side? It would appear that the two concepts are not mutually exclusive and there is a need for both within certain communities. A police system based on consensus and working in and with the community seems the better option for the community as a whole. This method allows the community to be involved in the law enforcement process and encourages the community to be involved in its own safety by the informal policing of its on neighbourhood, collecting intelligence on suspected trouble makers to assist the police. Community policing allows the community to be a partner with the police in crime reduction and as such are more receptive to police initiatives. Zero tolerance should be used selectively in reducing certain types of deviant behaviour such as anti social behaviour and also for knife and carrying weapons, but its success is limited to selected areas. Its use should be limited to a short sharp approach and it should also be seen as a short term policy rather than overall police policy. It has been shown that a tactic of the targeting of repeat offenders and victims, a high level police visibility in some crime hot spots, and problem orientated strategies and police initiatives have worked. Zero tolerance style of policing can impact on human rights and liberties but it is popular with most members of the law abiding community and politicians as it demonstrates that the state is seen to be tough on crime. Of course whatever is the better option for the community depends on whether you look at the community as a whole or a particular section. If one block of flats is being terrorised by anti social behaviour and zero tolerant tactics are adopted to deal with it, it will not be considered beneficial to the whole community if the perpetrators are merely dispersed to a neighbouring block within the same community. What is best for the community can also be said to be the eradication of crime in the first place, so that the causes are addressed (community policing) rather than the symptons (zero tolerance). It would appear that there is a place for a zero tolerance approach within community policing itself particularly if the community is kept informed of the police approach so that it is included in adopting the policy. So although it may be seen to some members of the community as the better style of policing overall it is better to have the community policing system which is a softly softly approach to law enforcement underpinning the relationship between the police and the community.

Design Of Calipers For Post Polio Paralytic Patients Engineering Essay

Design Of Calipers For Post Polio Paralytic Patients Engineering Essay ABSTRACT Over 13 million in India people suffer from various locomotor disabilities, of which 4 million have been afflicted by polio. Polio destroys the nervous system and causes paralysis of the limbs. An orthosis or brace is required to provide support to compensate for the weakened muscles, maintain proper positioning and stability of the affected joints, restore weight-bearing capabilities to the affected legs and allow the patient to walk without the risk of falls and further fractures. The objective of this project is to develop a design for adjustable polio braces, taking into consideration hinge movement at the knee. The current designs of KAFO are made of Stainless Steel, Aluminium, Thermoplastics, Reinforced Carbon fibers etc. While Aluminium is light-weight, it does not provide the required stiffness for the caliper design; Stainless Steel is corrosion resistant and has great yield strength but is heavy. Hence material analysis is done to chose a material with density between that of Aluminium and Stainless Steel, but with high ultimate strength and high fatigue endurance limit. Also the currently available designs do not incorporate flexible movement at the knee thus discomforting the patient during travel etc. The proposed design is done using CAD tools. A pilot prototype is made in PVC and field-tested to determine if adjustments can be easily performed by the patient. Based on feedback from the field-testing, the final model was designed using Titanium scr aps. ABOUT THE COMPANY M/s. AAROPNA PROTESI PRIVATE LTD. is a medical implants surgical instruments manufacturing and trading company. Our choice of this company was based on its expertise in developing biomedical instruments and implants and its association as a subsidiary of its parent company parent M/s. TITANIUM TANTALUM PRODUCTS LTD, which is an ISO 9001:2008 certified company dealing in various Titanium Products for the past 29 years. The objective of the company is to establish the necessary world-class infrastructure for design, develop, manufacture, package, trade market the Orthopaedic, Neurosurgical, Orthodontic, Dental and other similar reconstructive / replacement implants and its surgical instruments in Titanium alloys and other advanced Biomaterial. Aaropna Protesi Private Ltd. deals with designing of medical implants through biomechanical laws and the development, customization and optimization of medical implants and instruments using technology of CAD-CAM Solutions. It trades in world-class imported medical implants, surgical instruments, tools other surgical accessories in India. It has more than two decades of experience in handling Titanium, Tantalum, Zirconium and Niobium through its parent company. INTRODUCTION 1.1 WHAT IS POLIOMYELITIS? Poliomyelitis, often known as polio or infantile paralysis, is an acute viral infectious disease spread from person to person, primarily via the fecal-oral route. [1] In about 1% of cases the virus enters the central nervous system, preferentially infecting and destroying motor neurons, leading to muscle weakness and acute flaccid paralysis. Different types of paralysis may occur, depending on the nerves involved; spinal polio is the most common form, characterized by asymmetric paralysis that most often involves the legs. [2] The term poliomyelitis is used to identify the disease caused by any of the three distinct variations of poliovirus. Two basic patterns of polio infection are described: a minor illness which does not involve the central nervous system (CNS), sometimes called abortive poliomyelitis, and a major illness involving the CNS, which may be paralytic or non-paralytic. [1] In most people with a normal immune system, a poliovirus infection is asymptomatic. The virus enters the central nervous system in about 3% of infections. Most patients with CNS involvement develop non-paralytic aseptic meningitis, with symptoms of headache, neck, back, abdominal and extremity pain, fever, vomiting, lethargy and irritability. [2][3] Approximately 1 in 1000 to 1 in 200 cases progress to paralytic disease, in which the muscles become weak, floppy and poorly controlled, and finally completely paralyzed; this condition is known as acute flaccid paralysis. [4] In many countries, polio or poliomyelitis was for many years the most common cause of physical disability in children.[1] Currently through vaccination programs, Polio has been eliminated in most countries, a size-able percentage of people are still affected by the crippling disease in India, Nepal, Nigeria and Afghanistan. Often the paralysis will gradually disappear, partly or completely. Any paralysis left after 7 months, however is usually permanent and certain secondary problems may develop, especially if precautions are not taken to prevent them. These problems are further disabilities or complications that can appear after, and because of, the original disability. Contracture of joints is one commonly encountered secondary problem. In this there is a shortening of muscles and tendons so that the full range of limb movement is prevented. [5] Fig. 1.1 Typical contractures in polio Other common deformities can cause deformities including over stretched joints and dislocations. Fig. 1.2 Deformities caused by polio 1.2 EVALUATING A PATIENTS NEED FOR AIDS AND PROCEDURES Step1: Observe the patient carefully and notice which parts of the body seem strong, and which seem weak. Differences between one side of the body and the other are identified such as differences in the length or thickness of the legs. Other deformities, unusual gait, tilt to one side, supporting limbs, position of hips, shoulder and curve of back are also observed. These early observations will help you know what parts of the body you most need to check for strength and range of motion. [5] Step2: This is the physical examination. It should usually include: Range-of-motion testing, especially where there might be contractures. Muscle testing, especially of muscles that may be weak. Also test muscles that need to be strong to make up for weak ones (such as arm and shoulder strength for crutch use). Check for deformities: contractures; dislocations (hip, knee, foot, shoulder and elbow); difference in leg length; tilt of hips and curve or abnormal shape of the back. Step3: After the physical exam, again observe how the patient moves or walks. The particular way of moving and walking is related with the physical findings (such as weakness of certain muscles, contractures, and leg length). Step4: Based on observations and tests, a study is done to understand what assistance might help the patient. Different aspects of the aid must be considered such as: benefit, cost, comfort, appearance, availability of materials, and whether the patient is comfortable. Step5: Once the assist device has been decided, the necessary measurements are taken to make the brace or aid. When making it, once again it is wise to put it together temporarily so that adjustments can be made before it is rivet, glue, or nail it into its final form. Step6: Have the patient try the brace or aid for a few days to get used to it and to see how well it works. If there is discomfort or any problems, alternate improvements or necessary adjustments should be made. 1.3 DESCRIPTION OF A CALIPER Braces or calipers are aids that help hold legs or other parts of the body in useful positions. They usually serve either one or both of the purposes given below: To provide support, strength/firmness to a weak joint (or joints). To help prevent or correct the deformity. ORTHOTIC DEVICE: An orthosis or orthotic is an orthopedic device that supports or corrects the function of a limb or the torso [6]. An orthopaedic brace or orthotic is an orthopaedic device used to: Control, guide, limit and/or immobilize an extremity, joint or body segment for a particular reason To restrict movement in a given direction To assist movement generally To reduce weight bearing forces for a particular purpose To aid rehabilitation from fractures after the removal of a cast To otherwise correct the shape and/or function of the body, to provide easier movement capability or reduce pain. [6] LOWER LIMB ORTHOSIS: A lower-limb orthotic is an external device that is attached to the lower limb as a whole or limb segment in order to improve its function by providing support, reducing pain through transferring load to another area or correcting flexible deformities. NOMENCLATURE FOR CALIPERS Calipers are named after the joints that they replace the function of. The following are the acronyms used: Ankle Foot Orthosis (A.F.O.) Knee Ankle Foot Orthosis (K.A.F.O.) Hip Knee Ankle Foot Orthosis (H.K.A.F.O.) ANKLE FOOT ORTHOSIS (A.F.O.s): Ankle foot orthoses are orthotic devices encompassing the  ankle  joint and all (or part) of the  foot. AFOs are externally applied and intended to control position and motion of the ankle, compensate for weakness, or correct deformities. [6]   Fig. 1.3 Ankle Foot Orthosis KNEE ANKLE FOOT ORTHOSIS (K.A.F.O.): A knee-ankle-foot orthosis provides flexion, extension and mediolateral stabilization of the knee; may provide free or locked knee motion, or adjustable range of motion [7]. A knee-ankle-foot orthotic is typically designed to enable patients suffering from weakness or lack of control of the knee joint to walk safely. It is also used as an independent walking device for a walking-impaired person whose lower limb is paralyzed or whose muscle function is lost due to his spinal cord injury, diseases (such as polio), cerebrovascular disorder, external wounds and so forth. It is comprised of a main hinge assembly, an ankle assembly, a foot plate; a lower leg housing member; an upper leg housing member and supporting structure. Fig. 1.4 Knee Ankle Foot Orthosis HIP KNEE ANKLE FOOT ORTHOSIS (H.K.A.F.O) HKAFO is basically a KAFO with addition of hip joint and pelvic section which  provide control to selected hip motions.   The motions included at the hip are front to back, side to side, and rotation. In the HKAFO there is a minimized risk of the hip  moving out of proper position or dislocating. In this type of caliper, the  hip and lower spine is stabilized in cases where the patient is weak or paralyzed. Fig. 1.5 Hip Knee Ankle Foot Orthosis The average weight of stainless steel calipers are given below. Table 1.1 Weight of conventional stainless steel calipers TYPE OF CALIPER WEIGHT (kg) A.F.O. 1.100 K.A.F.O. 1.600 H.K.A.F.O. 2.250 2. LITREATURE SURVEY Literatures on existing Calipers and design In the literature survey, various designs of existing calipers have been proposed. The patients comfort level, flexibility, cost-effectiveness and weight form the most important basis for the design of the caliper. Some of the recently published works are as follows: Table 2.1: Literature Survey SL.NO TITLE AUTHOR TECHNICAL DETAILS CONCLUSIONS/ LIMITATIONS 1. Anatomical Models of Diarthroidal Joints: Rigid Multibody Systems and Deformable Structures JH Heggard Computer Methods in Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering- Volume 2, 2003 Mathematical methods to model diarthroidal joints. Modelling of the joints is necessary to be able to understand the difficulty faced in movement by a post-polio paralytic patient. The various forces and stresses acting on the joints were studied in order to understand various basic movements and to help in the design of calipers. 2. Bioengineering Analysis of Force Actions Transmitted by the Knee Joint JK Marrisson Biomedical Engineering, 5: 164-178, 1988 Determining forces acting on the knee joint as the caliper to be designed is a K.A.F.O(Knee-Ankle-Foot-Orthosis) caliper. Forces on knee joint during locomotion 3. Orthopaedic Prosthesis and Joint Implants Shan Fengwang, Lichun L, Michael J. Yaszemski Biomedical Engineering, 2: 1984 Study of Titanium and its properties such as biocompatibility, light weightedness, density, youngs modulus to check for its use in the manufacture of calipers Use of titanium in biomedical applications and how this could be extended to the manufacture of calipers and reduce the discomfort and weight of the same. 2.1 WORKFLOW Start Caliper Classification Similar Products Analysis Commercial Intelligence Material Selection Manufacturing Process Recognition of Tools and Machineries Development Design of Product Modelling Analysis Fabrication of Prototype Model Fabrication of Prototype Model Testing Verification I/P=O/P Stop Root cause analysis for failure Recognition of Caliper and its Application Fig. 2.1 Workflow 3. SELECTON OF MATERIAL For the design of a caliper, a material is chosen based on its physical properties such as tensile strength, elastic modulus, yield stress, etc. The choice of material is based on a comparative analysis of these factors. Ideally, a material should be chosen such that the caliper is: Comfortable Lightweight, yet strong Easy to handle Cost-effective Durable As attractive as possible Easy to manufacture [8] 3.1 MATERIALS CURRENTLY USED FOR PRODUCTION OF CALIPERS: Braces are made from various types of materials-plastic, elastic, metal, or a combination of similar materials.  At present calipers are of two types: Metallic made from Aluminum, Stainless steel Non-metallic- made from polypropylene, reinforced carbon Advantages of metallic calipers over non-metallic calipers: Less expensive to manufacture: Metallic calipers are cheaper to produce because those manufactured using poly-propylene require specialized moulds to shape the polymer. The biggest expense in making plastic braces is the plaster bandage used for casting a mold of the leg. Easier to customize for each patient: As the height and contours of each patient differs, the metal rods are easier to customize than plastic calipers. They are quick and easy to make They are more durable than plastic calipers. If used with sandals or clogs, in hot weather they are cooler than plastic. 3.2 TITANIUM AS AN ALTERNATIVE MATERIAL: 3.2.1 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF TITANIUM Titanium is a chemical element, metallic in nature whose chemical symbol is Ti , atomic number 22 and atomic weight 47.90. Ti is a transition metal silver in color It has the following properties: low density high tensile strength corrosion-resistant There are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant (73.8%). [8] It is the ninth-most abundant element in the Earths crust (0.63% by mass) and the seventh-most abundant metal. [8] Titanium and its alloys possess suitable mechanical properties such as strength, bend strength and fatigue resistance to be used in load-bearing biomedical applications such as orthopaedics and dentistry. Titanium is a reactive metal. In air, water, or arbitrary electrolytes an oxide layer is formed on the surface of the material. This oxide belongs to one of the most resistant compounds in the mineral world. As the oxide layer is a dense film it protects the metal from chemical attack which is of importance in an aggressive biological environment. Within the human body, titanium is inert as the oxide layer which is formed is in contact with the biological tissue, is hardly soluble and in particular no ions are released that could react with other molecules. [9] There are 22 grades of commercially available alloyed and unalloyed titanium. Based on the application, a suitable grade is chosen. 3.2.2 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF STAINLESS STEEL, ALUMINIUM AND TITANIUM Metals used for the purpose of designing calipers are required to have both high static and cycle-dependent properties. Tensile yield and ultimate strength, modulus of elasticity, and fatigue endurance limit are the principal metallic strength attributes that must be determined. Wear resistance is also an important criterion for all biomaterials. Excessive wear can lead to premature mechanical failure of the replacement component. Table 3.1. Comparative study of the physical properties of the different materials PHYSICAL PROPERTIES MATERIALS Stainless steel Aluminium Titanium Density (g ·cmà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢3) 9.0 2.70 4.51 Ultimate strength (MPa) 860 455 900 Yield strength (MPa) 520 400 830 Yield stress (MPa) 210-350 40-50 240-370 Youngs modulus (GPa) 205 70 110-125 Linear coefficient of thermal expansion ( °F-1) 7.810-6 12.910-6. 5.010-6 Density: Density of a material is defined as the concentration of matter as measured by the mass per unit volume. A higher density indicates a higher mass for a particular volume. Titanium has density between stainless steel and aluminium indicating that for the same volume of material, titanium is lighter than stainless steel but heavier than aluminium. Ultimate strength: Ultimate strength, also known as tensile strength, is defined as the maximum stress a material can withstand before necking. Ultimate strength should be desirably, high for a material. Titanium has ultimate strength higher than stainless steel and twice as high as aluminium indicating that it can withstand greater tensile stress i.e. it can withstand more stress before necking. Fig.3.1 Stress-Strain curve Yield Strength: Yield strength is defined as the property of a material to resist deformation. For a good material, the yield strength should be high. The yield strength for titanium is almost twice as high as stainless steel and aluminium indicating that it can withstand more stress without deforming permanently. Yield Stress: Yield stress is defined as the minimum amount of stress which when applied to the body causes permanent deformation. Even if the applied stress is removed at this point, the object does not return to its original dimensions. The yield stress of titanium is almost equal to stainless steel but more than 6 times than that of aluminium. Youngs Modulus: Youngs modulus is the ratio between stress applied and resulting strain. It is used as a measure of change in linear dimensions upon application of tensile stress. If this ratio is large, it indicates that the material can withstand stress better with less deformation. The Youngs Modulus of titanium is higher than aluminium but lesser than that of stainless steel. The modulus is an important concern in the orthopedic application of biomaterials because: Bone has a modulus on the order of 17 GPa. The discrepancy between the modulus of bone and that of the alloys used to support structural loads means that the metallic devices implanted in the body take a disproportionate share of the load applied as stress. According to Wolffs Law, bone adapts to applied stress. Because alloys cause stress shielding one result of the adaptation is that the bone associated with the implant does not become or remain as strong as it would in the absence of an implant. [12] Linear Coefficient of Expansion: Linear coefficient of expansion is defined as the increase in length per degree rise in temperature. If a metal is alternately subjected to heating and cooling cycles, it should maintain a certain tolerance of dimensions i.e. a low coefficient of thermal expansion is desirable. The linear coefficient of expansion of titanium is much lesser than both stainless steel and aluminium indicating that the change in the dimensions of the object with change in temperature is less, which is desirable. 3.2.3 GRADES OF TITANIUM There are 22 grades of commercially available alloyed and unalloyed titanium. [10] Referenced standards: ASTM- American Standards for Testing Materials This standard is issued under the fixed designation B 338 as revised on November 2003. [15] ASTM Specification for commercially pure titanium: F-67 Table 3.2 Grades of titanium GRADE COMPOSITION Grade 1 Unalloyed titanium Grade 2 Unalloyed titanium Grade 3 Unalloyed titanium Grade 7 Unalloyed titanium plus 0.12 to 0.25 % palladium Grade 9 Titanium alloy (3 % aluminum, 2.5 % vanadium) Grade 11 Unalloyed titanium plus 0.12 to 0.25 % palladium Grade 12 Titanium alloy (0.3 % molybdenum, 0.8 % nickel) Grade 13 Titanium alloy (0.5 % nickel, 0.05 % ruthenium) Grade 14 Titanium alloy (0.5 % nickel, 0.05 % ruthenium) Grade 15 Titanium alloy (0.5 % nickel, 0.05 % ruthenium) Grade 16 Unalloyed titanium plus 0.04 to 0.08 % palladium Grade 17 Unalloyed titanium plus 0.04 to 0.08 % palladium Grade 18 Titanium alloy (3 % aluminum, 2.5 % vanadium) plus 0.04 to 0.08 % palladium Grade 26 Unalloyed titanium plus 0.08 to 0.14 % ruthenium Grade 27 Unalloyed titanium plus 0.08 to 0.14 % ruthenium Grade 28 Titanium alloy (3 % aluminum, 2.5 % vanadium) plus 0.08 to 0.14 % ruthenium Grade 30 Titanium alloy (0.3 % cobalt, 0.05 % palladium) Grade 31 Titanium alloy (0.3 % cobalt, 0.05 % palladium) Grade 33 Titanium alloy (0.4 % nickel, 0.015 % palladium, 0.025 % ruthenium, 0.15 % chromium) Grade 34 Titanium alloy (0.4 % nickel, 0.015 % palladium, 0.025 % ruthenium, 0.15 % chromium) Grade 35 Titanium alloy (4.5 % aluminum, 2 % molybdenum, 1.6 % vanadium, 0.5 % iron, 0.3 % silicon) Grade 36 Titanium alloy (45 % niobium) From the comparative study, the following conclusions were drawn: The yield stress, yield strength and ultimate strength are much higher for titanium. Hence it serves as a suitable material for calipers as it has to withstand the stress applied by the body weight and external forces. Lower stiffness of titanium with respect to stainless steel reduces the severity of stress-shielding. The density of titanium is lesser than stainless steel; therefore the calipers would be much lighter than those made of stainless steel, almost by half. As linear coefficient of thermal expansion is lesser for titanium, the caliper dimensions would not change much with change in temperature. Titanium is more corrosion resistant than stainless steel. Stainless steel relies on chromium to render it passive to corrosion. Titanium however develops passivity on its own from the stable oxide film that forms on its surface. Unalloyed titanium grade 2 has higher ductility and is hence, cast, formed, joined, and machined with relative ease as compared to the alloyed grades.   4. DESIGN OF CALIPER 4.1 DESIGN OF EXISTING CALIPERS 4.2 DEVELOPMENT OF IMPROVED DESIGN Software that was used for the development of caliper design: Autodesk Inventor Professional 2009. 4.2.1 ABOUT AUTODESK INVENTOR PROFESSIONAL 2009 Autodesk Inventor Professional 2009 helps you design, visualize and stimulate the end product desired digitally. It not only includes the 3D mechanical design and CAD productivity, but also the essential tooling of various parts of the end product required such as plastic, that lends itself to manufacturing, and also facilitating in validation of the product digitally, sparing the need to test with physical prototypes.    With the integration of motion simulation and stress analysis tools in Autodesk Inventor Professional 2009, marketing a product becomes a much easier. Effective prediction on how the product will work in real-time conditions can be done and also automation of important aspects of the design such as the injection molds for plastic parts help greatly in minimizing errors to a good extent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  An intuitive design environment of Autodesk Inventor Professional 2009 helps in the development of initial sketches and models of different parts. Also, this software helps by automating the basic geometrical sketches to actual prototypes making using of materials such as plastic, steel frames, tubes etc. This therefore reduces the geometry burden and the time required to make necessary changes and bring about innovation in the product, thereby reducing the time it takes to reach the market. Validation, in earlier times, was a very time consuming and expensive process involving skilled specialists but Autodesk Inventor Professional 2009 has made the entire process very simple and simulation expertise is not required now. Simulation and optimization of designs digitally has become very easy due to this software. Simple user interface helps in part by part design and integration. Stress analysis can also be performed to evaluate areas of stress concentration and hence helps in distribution of the same by slight design modifications. Improved Design: Auto Desk Inventor 2009 supports all major drawing formats like DWG and some of the improved features compared to its previous versions include: Design views in high speed Saves a lot of time. Viewing of drawings and annotation takes very less time when compared to the previous versions. Betterment in error handling High level of intelligence to give suggestions regarding geometrical issues. Faster startup time Launch time is much faster when compared to previous versions. Part by part design view Immediate definition and change in any part including dimensions and coloring and suitable assembly instantly. New Standards for 3D Modeling Ease of Use Autodesk Inventor 2009 helps focusing on the problem rather than trying to gain expertise over using the software as such, owing to its advanced user interface and features, making complex dialog boxes redundant. Inventor Fusion Simple tools to explore new shapes and easy on the spot modification of model from any source. Improved design feature creation Better control over the geometry of the design with productivity uncompromised. Assembly design features [20] Assembly Snap tool Interference analysis and contact detection Assembly configurations Large assembly performance Frame Generator Weldments Content Center Design Doctor Direct manipulation It is an important feature of Autodesk Inventor Professional 2009 which helps in uninterrupted design workflow. Being able to control all the commands exactly at the point needed gives more room for free sketching, quicker assembly and better accuracy. Sustainable Design Material selection can now be done considering environmental effects and cost effectiveness. Using Autodesk, it is now possible to access environmental information on materials required for fabrication and make prudent decisions based on careful analysis. 4.2.2 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS OF THE CALIPER During the modeling, different parameters were measured which included Diameter of the mid- thigh Diameter of distal end of the thigh Distance between mid- thigh and distal end of the thigh Diameter of proximal end of the calf Distance between distal end of the thigh and proximal end of the calf Diameter of the distal end of the calf Distance between proximal and distal end of the calf Diameter of ankle Length of the foot Breadth of the toes Breadth of mid-foot Based on these parameters, the design of the calipers was developed using Autodesk Professional Inventor 2009 The drawing was modeled in parts and later assembled into the complete caliper as shown in the drawings. All dimensions are in mm Fig 4.1 Engineering drawing of KAFO All dimensions are in mm Fig 4.2 Engineering drawing of upper leg supporting structure (thigh) All dimensions are in mmFig 4.3 Engineering drawing of lower leg supporting structure (Calf) All dimensions are in mm Fig.4.4 Engineering drawing of the ankle and foot supporting structure All dimensions are in mm Fig 4.5 Engineering drawing of Ti-Strip1 All dimensions are in mm Fig 4.6 Engineering drawing of Ti-Strip 2 All dimensions are in mm Fig 4.7 Engineering drawing of Ti-Bend Strip Fig 4.8 Engineering drawing of the Male Clamp Fig 4.9 Engineering Drawing of Female Clamp Hence, by using Autodesk Inventor Professional 2009, the design for a caliper was developed. The different parts of the caliper were developed individually and later assembled to form a complete model. These diagrams are used as a basis for the development of the prototype. The major changes that were incorporated in the design were at the knee joint: Male and Female Clamp were used to replicate the hinge joint at the knee. In order to assist in easy bending of the caliper while sitting, a rivet was introduced which when unscrewed, will faclitate flexion at the knee. This is primarily useful while sitting and travelling as the caliper need not be completely removed. 5. DEVELOPMENT OF PROTOTYPE The development of prototype was conducted in essentially three steps: Development of PVC prototype Identification of problems and corresponding corrections made Development of titanium protoype 5.1 MANUFACTURING PROCESS There are five major steps in manufacturing the Polyvinylchloride prototype. They have been listed and enumerated below: Marking This is the foremost step in manufacturing. It is also known as Material Planning. Knowing the required dimensions is a prerequisite. Once the dimensions for every part of

Drug Resistance Rising Among Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Cases Essay

Drug Resistance Rising Among Mycobacterium tuberculosis Cases Abstract Drug resistance has been increasing among patients infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Previous miracle drugs that were used in the 1950s have now been proven useless in many cases simply because the bacteria are not susceptible to antibiotics such as isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, etc. when they are taken. This pathogen is easily transmitted through air and has the capability of attacking the respiratory system and creating fatal consequences if not treated properly. A lot of people who contribute to the antibiotic resistant statistics are those that do not take medication accordingly. Even though the bacterium may not be resistant at first, it can eventually become resistant when it exchanges genes with already resistant bacterium. This paper will focus on specific antibiotics and their abilities to fight drug resistance. Mycobacterium tuberculosis was once phenomenally cured by simple antibiotics such as isoniazid, rifampin, streptomycin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol, but recently, this pathogen has become antibiotic resistant to once useful drugs (Davies, 1999). Antibiotic resistance occurs when microorganisms become immune to specific drugs that are prescribed by doctors to kill other microorganisms. Usually, bacteria can be eradicated because they are single celled organisms but when drugs become defiant, they do not function properly. When antibiotics are taken, they enter the bloodstream and interfere with all microbes in the body while also altering body functions (Bren FDA, 2003). Sometimes antibiotics may not necessarily target its â€Å"wanted† target but instead, they attack both harmful and benign bacteria. When the bacteria that are sus... ...inistration. 7-27-05: http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/2002/402_bugs.html Davies, P. (1999, March). Multi-Drug Resistant Tuberculosis. Multi-Drug Resistant Tuberculosis. 7-27-05: http://www.priory.com/cmol/TBMultid.htm Kimball, J. (2003, August). Genetic Recombination in Bacteria. Genetic Recombination in Bacteria. 7-27-05: http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/Avery.html Padilla, M. (2005). Tuberculosis. Encarta. 7-27-05: http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576449/Tuberculosis.html Somoskovi, A. (2001, April). The Molecular Basis of Resistance to Isoniazid, Rifampin, and Pyrazinamide in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Respiratory Research. 7-27-05: http://respiratory-research.com/content/2/3/164 (2005). Pathology of TB. The Internet Pathology Laboratory for Medical Education. 7-27-05: http://www-medlib.med.utah.edu/WebPath/TUTORIAL/MTB/MTB.html

The West in Film Essay -- Movies Native Americans Papers

The depiction of minorities, specifically women and Native Americans, in Western film has changed drastically from the early 1930's to the late 1980's. These changes represent the changing views of American society in general throughout the 20th century. In the early part of the century, women and Native Americans were depicted as a burden. Women were viewed as a form of property, helpless and needing support. These minorities were obstacles in the quest for manifest destiny by the United States. Western films during the early 20th century represent the ignorance of American culture towards minorities. As time progressed, society began to develop compassion for Native Americans and men began to see women as equals. The movie industry perpetuated the views of society throughout the last century. When Native Americans were seen as an "obstacle" in westward expansion, film directors supported these views on screen. As society began to question the treatment of Native Americans and women, the film scripts responded to these changes. By looking at western films over the last 60 years, the correlation between societal attitudes and film plots has changed the views of Native Americans and women. The two have worked together to bring the portrayal of Native Americans from savage beasts to victims, and women from property to equals. In the 1930's Native Americans and women were viewed as inferior races. The films produced during the early part of the 20th century, particularly those starring John Wayne reflected these societal attitudes. The portrayal of minorities in Stagecoach and Fort Apache clearly reflect the views of society at that time. The depiction of the West is similar to that which is found in old history textbooks, em... ...th the first westward expansion and the oppression of women lasted until the 1950's. However, it took American film produces until the 1990's to create roles for these minorities that were equal to those of white males. The depiction of minorities in western films, particularly women and Native Americans, has made significant progress from the 1930's and this progress has trickled into the teaching of history, particularly western expansion. Textbooks that used to emphasis the triumph and dominance of the United States over Native Americans, are now explaining expansion with less pride and more guilt. Women who played significant roles in society used to be ignored by history books, and are now included in almost every chapter. The progressive movements made by the film industry and society are allowing for Americans to look at the west in a new, enlightened manner.

Developmental studies

At the beginning of the twentieth century underdeveloped countries began to look for the ways to diminish their dependency on agricultural exports and to bring on an industrial revolution. The situation which evoked this need was critical. The problem was that the underdeveloped countries developed mainly the policies of supporting primary commodity exports. Transportation policy was used in the infrastructure for delivering the export crop to the harbour.The research institutions specialized in agriculture worked only on improving crops for export, for example, sugar cane, coffee, cotton, etc.  while crops for domestic consumption, for instance, beans or manioc corn, potatoes, left with little or even without expenditure. As a result some of the underdeveloped countries had to follow the policy of import substitution to induce industrialization. Import substitution industrialization will be the goal of study of this paper. This economic policy will be investigated in the frames of an economic term with the necessary characteristics and also in a wider meaning as the experience of the countries of East Asia and Latin America.In the process of research different points of view, both pro and contra, will be cited in order to shed the light on positive and negative aspects and cover the field broadly. In the conclusion of the paper the main findings will be summed up. The term of import substitution can be defined as an economic process and as a policy strategy. As a process import substitution relates to the situation â€Å"where regions (more precisely, existing or new economic activities within regions) take up the production of goods or services which formerly were imported, but, for whatever reasons, now can be viably produced within the region (e.g. as a result of population increases leading to increases in demand or as a result of productivity increases resulting in greater competitiveness. †(Economic Geography Glossary, 1999)Import substitution i ndustrialization (ISI) as the economic strategy means encouraging the development of domestic industry by limiting manufactured goods import. The need of ISI implementation arouses from the belief that there is a potential comparative advantage in some of the industries of developing countries, but these industries are too weak yet to compete with foreign well-established ones.Thus, in order to allow infant industries to establish themselves and to realize their potential, and consequently to be able to compete internationally, governments should support the initial period of their development. The protection of government implies temporary measures such as using tariffs or import quotas to start industrialization in the country. As a policy strategy import substitution can be used to achieve the following goals: 1) to utilize the capacities which are underused; 2) to fight unemployment in the regions;3) to protect infant industries. The policy of import substitution industrializati on, according to the definition provided by the encyclopaedia, is â€Å"a trade and economic policy based on the premise that a developing country should attempt to substitute products which it imports, mostly finished goods, with locally produced substitutes. †(Wikipedia, 2005) The theory of import substitution has much common with the theory of mercantilism. Both the theories promote minimal imports and high exports as the means of inducing the growth of national wealth.In order to implement the policy of import substitution industrialization, the following three main tenets must be pursued: 1) protective barriers to trade, which can be set up in the form of tariffs. Tariffs or custom duties are applied to the goods which are imported and in this way they artificially protect domestic industries from competition with foreign companies; 2) a particular industrial policy, which orchestrates and subsidizes production of the substitutes; 3) a monetary policy, which will keep th e domestic currency overvalued.Monetary policy is implemented by setting reserve requirements and changing some interest rates directly or indirectly. The chief tools of monetary policy are operations in open market. In open market money circulates through the selling and buying of deferent foreign currencies credit instruments, or commodities. Such sales or purchases create a certain base currency which leaves or enters market circulation. Usually open market operations are aimed at achieving a specific short term interest rate target.However, monetary policy may also target a certain â€Å"exchange rate relative to some foreign currency or else relative to gold. † (Wikipedia, 2005) Equally important is to note that import substitution as economic protectionalizm can have negative outcomes. Stutz pointed out that â€Å"This form of economic protectionism helped some countries industrialize in the past but involves economic risks. † (Stutz and Souza, 1998) The risks of import substitution meant by Stutz are potential inefficiencies and higher prices.Successful implementation of this policy as a rule needs massive expenditure on infrastructure. Additionally, import substitution is accompanied by the establishment of state firms in the areas of industry which are thought to be too risky or too large for the private sector (or example, steel, aircraft) or estimated to be too important to be owned by foreign firms (or instance, oil). The policy of import substitution industrialization was argued by the advocates of absolute free trade theory.Generally, free trade becomes possible when the flow of services and goods between countries is not taxed. In particular, the economists who supported free trade policy stated that economic strategy would become successful only under the following conditions: 1) international trade in services must be without trade barriers, or tariffs; 2) international trade of goods must not be free from any possible tariffs (n amely taxes on imports) or trade barriers (for example, quotas on import); 3) the free movement of international labor; 4) the free movement of international capital;5) the absence of any economic protectionalizm, implemented by trade-distorting policies (for instance, subsidies, regulations taxes, or laws), which gives an advantage to domestic firms, factors of production, and households over foreign ones. Thus, it becomes obvious that free trade proponents advocated the policy which totally contradicted the fundamental tenets of import substitution industrialization. On the other hand, free trade proponents suggested that a foreign subsidy should be considered as another of comparative advantage and consequently domestic barriers should not be imposed on the purchase of goods produced overseas.Free trade economists pointed out that unlimited imports will be beneficial for domestic consumers which overweighs the loss of domestic producers. Thus, the lower prices of foreign subsidie s can be considered as net positive. Therefore, the domestic society where any import restriction is applied becomes â€Å"a whole worse off than it would be with unlimited imports. † (Wikipedia, 2005) Anyway, the viewpoints of the both theories – import substitution industrialization and absolute free trade – were checked in the process of their implementation and in real life experience.In the period from 1930 to 1940 the policy of import substitution industrialization was adopted in many underdeveloped countries of Latin America. The driving force which precipitated the acceptance of import substitution idea was the Great Depression which took place in 1930s. According to article Concern with Policy-relevance in the Latin American School of Economics authored by Bianchi, â€Å"Import substitution was a necessary condition for peripheral growth, in association with structural reforms in the economy.The focus should be placed on the strenghtening of the domest ic market, which was seen as the crucial element of an inward-looking model of development. † (Bianchi A. M. , 2003) Later on, in the 1950s Raul Prebisch, the prominent Argentine economist, expressed his belief that the only way to succeed for developing countries was to build forward linkages domestically and to create industries which would work on primary products already produced by the countries themselves. The policy of tariffs would help the domestic industry to prosper.By implementing the policy of import substitution industrialization in the period from 1950 to 1970 a number of Latin America countries, in particular Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, attempted to reach positive results and to increase their national wealth. The success of the policy in these countries was based on either high living standards or large populations. However, poorer and smaller countries, for example, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Honduras, were not successful in adopting import s ubstitution policy.Also it is notable that the countries which succeeded in import substitution industrialization managed to change the structure of their governments. Thus neo-colonialism collapsed and was replaced by democratic way of governing. Nationalization turned banks and utilities into public property and returned to nation some of the companies previously owned by foreigners. A case of implementation of import substitution industrialization can be examined with the help of the example of Brazil.Brazil was the country which carried the policy of import substitution industrialization later than other underdeveloped countries. The economists in Brazil carefully analyzed its effects and were planning the industrial development of the country while the other countries started import substitution mainly by accident. It is important to note that Brazil initially had all the chances for success in the policy of import substitution, since its population goes up to 170 million, whic h makes Brazil the fifth largest country in the world.Also Brazil is the fifth largest country by its land area. And finally, Brazil is rich in forest reserves, minerals, navigable rivers agricultural land, and hydroelectric capability. The development of Brazilian economy in the period from 1950 to the 1970s confirmed the most optimistic views. Brazil with its rich resources and reserves was called â€Å"the land of the future†. In 1950 Brazil attempted to establish the largest industry of motor vehicle having practically no sufficient basis. Thirty years later aircraft of Brazil were working on commuter airlines on the United States.Brazilian shoes spread everywhere. Moreover, Brazil opened up the richest iron mine in the world and Brazilians found out the capital city on the place where previously had been a roadless jungle and built the network of roads going deep into Amazon. When the oil prices rose and began threatening the development of Brazil economy, Brazilians lau nched huge hydroelectric projects to operate the growing industries of the â€Å"Golden Triangle†, which included Sao Paulo Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte and required the new automobiles to run on rum instead of gasoline.At the beginning of the 1980s even pessimists agreed that Brazil was â€Å"the country of future†, however added â€Å"and always will be†. The growth of Brazil stopped, when it was almost close to ripening. The modern cities in Brazil coexist together with miserable shanty-towns surrounded with open sewers. The roads are shared by modern vehicles and hand carts. The wages of Brazilian executives are the highest in the world, but at the same time average workers hardly reach subsistence level. Some economists call Brazil â€Å"a Switzerland within an India.† Other economists consider that the case of Brazil brightly illustrates economic growth without economic development. Economist Celso Furtado characterized the state of Brazilian economy in the following way: â€Å"The Brazilian economy constitutes a very interesting example of how far a country can go in the process of industrialization without abandoning its main features of underdevelopment: great disparity in productivity between urban and rural areas, a large majority of the population living at a physiological subsistence level, increasing masses of unemployed people in the urban zones, etc.† (Development policies, Catching Up, Sec 2, Chap 14) By the 1950s the industrial development by means of import substitution had been already a planned process in Brazil. New industries were protected from the foreign competition with the help of a number of methods. Basic industries (for example, steel, electrical power, petroleum reining) became either fully owned by state or received direct subsidies. Law of Similars aimed at putting high tariffs (sometimes tariffs went up to 300%) on imported goods as soon as any domestic firm somewhere in Brazil started manufacturing something ‘similar’.The industries considered high priority always could be credited under favorable terms by a national development bank. For some period of time, the government even set multiple exchange rates in order to lower the cost of imported capital equipment while the price of imported finished goods was kept expensive. One of the growing Brazilian industries in the mid of twentieth century was motor vehicles. The government hoped that foreign financing would help to expand Brazilian firms which were already producing motor parts, bus bodies, truck and so on and soon would turn them into real vehicle manufacturers.But this approach had to be changed for the government of Brazil faced the reluctance of American government to extend loans and the disapproval of the firms from Europe and the USA who owned a critical technology. The world famous giants – Fiat General Motors, Mercedes Volkswagen, and Ford – were threatened to lose their markets in Brazil if they did not manufacture vehicles within the country. It is important to note that modern manufacturing, in particular the production of appliances, motor vehicles, TVs and so on is a complex process that requires substantial knowledge and skill.Final assembly became possible in Brazil since it was the last stage of production and required the least skill. So, launching modern industries Brazil could start with final assembly and gradually came to more complicated â€Å"backwards†, which included more difficult procedures. For example, Volkswagen could start importing complete parts, such as engines, wheels etc. and assemble them in Sao Paulo plant. The tariffs allowed Volkswagen to sell 1960 30% Brazilian Beetle for twice what Europeans would pay even if the quality was not that high. Eventually, most of the parts became produced in Brazil and the quality of assembly improved.Gradually, the competition from Brazilian Fiats, Fords, and Chevrolets pushed the price down. In this way, Brazilian motor vehicle industry became more and more efficient and even in the 1970s Brazil exported subassemblies and parts to America and to the European countries. By 1980 Brazil started exporting entire vehicles. When import substitution industrialization was implemented in Latin America, the drawbacks of the policy soon revealed themselves. In Brazil as well as in other Latin America countries import substitution model led to foreign ownership in all the sectors in industry except those occupied by state enterprise.When the interests of foreign firms were threatened by Brazilian taxes, environmental or labor legislation, American, German, Italian, British Japanese or French owners were quick to call on their state departments. In particular, the Department of the United States defined one of its key objects as establishing favorable â€Å"business climate†. This meant undermining Brazilian government. Thus, in 1964 some Brazilian generals, b eing encouraged by American officials, made an attempt to overthrow constitutional government of their country.Another drawback of import substitution industrialization revealed in the fact that this policy led to huge foreign debts. It was not accidental, that Brazil and Mexico ran into debts in order to cover the expenses of their infrastructure development. The development of infrastructure needs a large number of hard currency imports. If infrastructure grows and increases exports together with hard currency earnings, a country can borrow in dollars. Then, under such condition, the country has to earn dollars in order to make the interest payments.But import substitution requires borrowing in dollars for the purpose of economic development of the domestic production that will not necessarily expand exports. By the end of the seventies the countries of Latin America faced the problem: Where to go next? And the next logical step was to export the goods which had been already produ ced efficiently. By the middle of the eighties Brazil became the largest exporter of shoes and coffee, among ten major exports to America, six were manufactured projects. Nevertheless, the expansion of manufactured goods made Brazilian economy vulnerable to retaliatory tariffs.Moreover, in the 1980s Brazil as well as other underdeveloped countries of Latin America did not manage to pursue the next layer of import substitution ( in particular, microchips, computers, capital equipment), although they attempted to create open markets for their manufactured consumer goods. Unlike the nations of Latin America, the majority of East Asian nations rejected the policy of import substitution industrialization. Due to this, as many economists think, East Asia had its superior performance in the seventies and the eighties of the twentieth century.Generally speaking, the Asian growth had started before World War II in Japan. The process of Asian growth included three groups of countries whose ec onomic â€Å"miracle† began at different times: 1) Japan (after the Second World War); 2) The â€Å"four tigers†: Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore (the sixties of the twentieth century); 3) Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, China (from the 1970s to the 1980s) In fact, by rejecting import substitution industrialization Asian nations managed to avoid some negative results of this policy. First, their economies were not dragged by inefficient industries.Second, East Asia did not have to implement policies benefiting industrial workers at the expense of those working on the farms. This was crucial for Asian countries because farmers made up the majority of their population. In addition, in order to diminish the cost of industrialization, the cost of food needed to be kept artificially low. And also, East Asia attempted to prevent the appearance of rent seeking behaviours, which resulted from the usage of the licensing schemes for import substitution strategy and whic h usually increased inefficiency of economics.High tariffs on manufactured goods, which were imposed by many countries in order to create their manufacturing bases, forced multinational companies to assemble or produce them locally. For example, manufacturers of motor industry exported vehicles for local assembly. Their vehicles were delivered ‘completely knocked down’ and the local assembly resulted in poorer quality and higher expenditures in comparison with those imported already built up. Moreover, the local assembly of identical products only duplicated resources and reduced economies of scale, which became increasingly inefficient for manufacturers.On the whole, at the beginning of 1980s the policy of import substitution industrialization began to fail both in Latin America and in those Asian countries where the policy was adopted. Generally, it happened because the governments involved in the policy started to overspend reserves in order to keep the stability of currency. The governments in Latin America defaulted on their debts and had to turn to the help of the International Monetary Fund. Another process which contributed to the failure of import substitution was globalization.However, some economists think that the collapse of the policy of import substitution industrialization â€Å"should not necessarily be taken as an endorsement of globalization. † (Wikipedia, 2005) Such point of view was supported by the fact that some countries of East Asia also used high tariff barriers while rejecting the rest of the strategy of import substitution. This mixed policy was focused on investment and subsidies on the industries which would produce goods for export. As a result, these Asian countries managed to create competitive industries.However, irrespective of all their achievements, the policies described above also proved to be inefficient and later led to many problems during Asian financial crisis. The closing period of import substit ution industrialization was in 1989 when the Washington Consensus as a set of policies designed to promote economic growth in the countries of Latin America was presented by John Williamson. The Washington Consensus included reforms which continued the policy of import substitution industrialization offering a modernized version of its tenets.In particular, the Washington Consensus proposed the following: 1) the discipline of fiscal policy; 2) tax reform. It flattened tax curve: the tax rates on high tax brackets were lowered and the tax rates on the low tax brackets were raised. Also it suggested lowering the marginal tax rate; 3) Competitive exchange rates; 4) Trade liberalization by means of low and uniform tariffs which would replace quantitative restrictions; 5) Reduced limitation for foreign direct investment; 6) Privatization of state enterprises;7) Deregulation, which implies â€Å"abolition of regulations that impede entry or restrict competition, except for those justifie d on safety, environmental and consumer protection grounds, and prudential oversight of financial institutions† (Wikipedia, 2005) 8) Property rights must be legally secured; 9) Public spending should be redirected toward the investment of health, education, and infrastructure; 10) â€Å"Interest rates that are market determined and positive (but moderate) in real terms. † (Wikipedia, 2005) In the nineties the Washington consensus was being disputed.The critics of the reforms argued that they would lead vulnerable countries to crisis instead of helping to overcome it. Naomi Klein and Noam Chomsky claimed that the neoliberal policies of the Washington consensus would lead to the exploitation of labor market of an underdeveloped economy by a more developed one. (Wikipedia, 2005) Privatization of state industries, deregulation, and tax reform were seen by the opponents as the reforms which would ensure the development of the layer of local monied elite who would pursue loca l interests and try to maintain local status quo.Jorge Taiana, the Deputy Foreign Minister of Argentina, also disapproved the Washington consensus saying that such policies never had a real consensus and nowadays â€Å"a good number of governments of the hemisphere are reviewing the assumptions with which they applied those policies in the 1990s,† adding that governments are working on a development model which would ensure productive employment and guarantee the generation of real wealth. (Wikipedia, 2005)Another economist Duncan Kennedy in the article for The Boston Review stated that the Washington Consensus completely opposed the initial tenets of import substitution industrialization and more favoured American political interests: â€Å"In the form promoted by the United States, ISI was as hostile to free-market economics as to Communism. The overarching idea of the Washington Consensus was to wipe out every aspect of ISI: the Washington Consensus is both that free mark ets are good and that ISI [Import substitution industrialization] was bad.Developing countries were to develop through integration into the world commodity and capital markets, with policies of deregulated private enterprise, foreign investment, and open economic borders. † (Kennedy D. 2003) All in all, taking into consideration the mistakes of the previous experience and the criticism of the economists, the developmental policy of import substitution industrialization has never been returned since the time of the Washington Consensus. Thus, in the paper import substitution industrialization as a process and as a policy was investigated.It was found out that import substitution pursues three main goals: utilization of underused capacities, reducing unemployment and infant industries protection. The implementation of the policy of import substitution industrialization is based on three tenets: particular monetary and industrial policies, and protective trade barriers. However, it turned out that success and efficiency of import substitution industrialization was doubted by the proponents of absolute free market.Potential risks of import substitution were also visible while careful theoretical analysis and pointed out by economists. The underdeveloped countries of Latin America and East Asia implemented the policy of import substitution industrialization. It occurred that the potential risks and the negative aspects found out by the proponents of absolute free market constituted the drawbacks of the policy and finally became the chief factors of its failure.However, the major part of East Asian countries rejected the policy and experienced economic growth. The example of Brazil demonstrated that the policy of import substitution industrialization can stimulate economic growth for some period of time, but its drawbacks (first of all high expenditures and inefficiencies) pose real obstacles for continuous and strong economic development.